Wednesday, March 11, 2009

纽西兰历史



New Zealand's colourful history commences from the time when the Rangitata Land mass separates from the ancient super continent of Gondwana 80 million years ago,evolving over time to become modern New Zealand.

As Polynesians discover and settle New Zealand, thought to be sometime between 950 and 1130 AD, the Moriori people are settling, possibly around the same time, the Chatham Islands, or Rekohu, a small group of islands off the coast of New Zealand.
In 1642 the first of the European explorers, Abel Janszoon Tasman from Holland, sails into New Zealand waters. The first encounter between Māori and European is violent, leading to bloodshed. After partly charting the coastline, Tasman leaves New Zealand without ever having had the occasion to set foot ashore.

One hundred years pass by before the next Europeans arrive. In 1769 James Cook, British explorer, and Jean François Marie de Surville, commander of a French trading ship, both arrive by coincidence in New Zealand waters at the same time. Neither ship ever sights the other.
From the late 1790's on, whalers, traders and missionaries arrive, establishing settlements mainly along the far northern coast of New Zealand.
Wars and conflicts between Māori (indigenous people of New Zealand) tribes were always constant, and weapons used until now were spears or clubs. The arrival of traders leads to a flourishing musket trade with local Māori, who rapidly foresee the advantages of overcoming enemy tribes with this deadly new weapon. The devastating period known as the inter tribal Musket Wars commences.
Rumours of French plans for the colonisation of the South Island help hasten British action to annexe, and then colonise New Zealand. A number of Māori chiefs sign a Treaty with the British on 6th February 1840, to be known as the Treaty of Waitangi. The subsequent influx of European settlers leads to the turbulent period of the New Zealand Wars, also known as the Land Wars, which last for over twenty years.
Hostilities between Māori and European commence in 1845. By 1870 the British government withdraws the last of its Imperial Troops from New Zealand, not wishing to invest any further in a costly overseas war which was likely to continue indefinitely.
The Māori, although inferior in number, proves a formidable foe.
The battle of Gate Pa is possibly the battle which made the greatest impact in the history of The New Zealand Wars.
Hongi Hika, warrior chief of the Nga Puhi tribe; Te Rauparaha, also known as "The Napoleon of the South - warrior chief of the Ngati Toa tribe; Te Kooti, resistant, prophet, and founder of the Ringatu church; Michael Joseph Savage, early innovative Prime Minister are but a few, Māori and European, who have left their mark on the history of New Zealand.
New Zealand today is an independent nation within the British Commonwealth. The British Monarch, although constitutional head of state, plays no active role in the administration of New Zealand's government.
The capital city is Wellington, although the largest city is Auckland, both situated in the North Island. New Zealand

北加里曼丹历史背景



Kalimantan
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Map of Kalimantan (white color) and its subdivisions.In most languages in the world, the term Kalimantan refers to the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo,[1] while for Indonesians, the name "Kalimantan" usually refers to the whole island of Borneo.[1] The Indonesian territory makes up approximately 3-quarters of the island, and the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei and East Malaysia.

Kalimantan is divided into four provinces:

East Kalimantan
South Kalimantan
West Kalimantan
Central Kalimantan

North Kalimantan, Revolutionary State of- North Kalimantan's independence was declared in December 1962 by leftists backed by Indonesia. Based in Brunei, their goal was to expel the British from Borneo and unite the area as Kalimantan. Brunei's army (comprised of crack Gurkha veterans of the Second World War) quickly suppressed the revolution.

North Kalimantan Communist Party

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Jump to: navigation, search
North Kalimantan Communist Party was a communist political party based in the Malaysian province of Sarawak in northern Borneo. It was founded on September 19, 1971. Before that, the group had been operating under the name Sarawak Communist Organization. The chairman of the NKCP was Wen Min Chyuan. He had been a leading member of the Sarawak United People's Party 1960-1964.

The membership of NKCP was predominantly ethnically Chinese.

The armed wing of NKCP was Pasukan Rakyat Kalimantan Utara (PARAKU).

In 1974 a break-away group led by Bong Kee Chok signed a peace treaty with the state government. The Bong Kee Chok faction was larger than the remaining Wen Min Chyuan faction.

The NKCP gradually declined. In 1989 CIA estimated that the group had around 100 fighters. On October 17, 1990, the NKCP signed a peace-treaty with the state government and dissolved. Several guerrilla fighters were reintegrated into civilian life.

马来西亚历史




马来西亚历史简介
 

马来西亚由马来半岛的西马及位於北婆罗州的东马所组成。在英国统治的时期,西马都被称为马来亚 。
马来西亚是东南亚这个地区其中一个最早有人类居住的地方。大约50,000年前,东马砂劳越州的古老尼亚(Niah Cave〕洞里,已经开始有人类居住了。在西马,即马来半岛,内陆山区的原住民比马来人更早就在这里居住了。
 

位於柬埔寨的Funan王朝,於公元初期曾经延伸其影响力到马来半岛。到了第七世纪,苏门答腊的室里弗逊(Sri Vijaya)王朝则在南中国海的区域崛起成为最大的王朝。第十三世纪后半期,满者伯夷(Majapahit〕王朝取代室里弗逊,马来半岛也跟着落入满者伯夷王朝的掌控中。
 

室里弗逊王朝的王子拜里米苏拉,於大约1403年逃出满者伯夷王朝的势力范围后,落脚在马来半岛的马六甲,并在这里建立了历史上闻名的马六甲王朝。也是在这个时候,大约於十五世纪初,回教被引进马六甲王朝。
 

马六甲王朝在全盛时期,是个闻名於世的港口及经贸中心。由於其位置处於航海及经贸的中心,又有良好的深水港口,东去资源丰饶的东方文明古国,西接印度、阿拉伯世界及欧洲西方列强,使到马六甲不仅成为繁荣一时的商业中心,它也同时成为东西方多种文化互相碰面及交流的地方。中国明朝的郑和就曾在七度下南洋的时候,到过马六甲。为了促进两国之邦交,明朝的公主汉丽宝更是被远嫁到马六甲来。


西方列强於十六世纪相继而来,葡萄牙人於1511年消灭了马六甲王朝,开始了马来半岛的殖民史。葡萄牙统治马六甲到1641年,被荷兰人所击败,马六甲又由荷兰人所统治。英国人於十八世纪开始展延它对马来半岛的控制。1786年,莱特首登槟城,1819年莱佛斯占领新加坡,1819年英国人和荷兰人的交换殖民地,使到英国人也获得了马六甲,并於较后成立了马六甲海峡殖民地。
 

英国人和马来苏丹於1895年签署的邦咯岛协约,使到英国人的势力进一步从马六甲海峡殖民地延伸到内陆的马来州属。通过律政司(Resident System)的制度,英国人逐渐全面的控制了整个马来半岛及新加坡。在英国人殖民的时期,英国人为了大量开发锡矿及树胶园,从中国及印度大量的引进劳工,使到马来西亚的多元种族的社会特征开始形成。
 

在北婆罗洲方面,沙巴从1882年就被英北婆罗公司统治,直到日本军队在第二次世界大战攻入占领为止。砂劳越则是英人查尔斯布洛克和汶莱苏丹协议下所建立起来的白人拉惹布洛克的天下。从1840年直到1942年,它都由布洛克家族所控制。在世界大战过后,沙巴及砂劳越正式成为英国殖民地。


1942年第二次世界大战,日本军入侵马来亚,把英殖民政府击溃并统治了马来亚三年零八个月。日本投降后,英军回归马来亚继续其殖民。1948年,英殖民政府宣布全国进入紧急状况以对付马来亚共产党。


1940年代末期及1950年代所掀起的争取独立运动,终於使到英殖民政府让马来亚於1955年进行了第一次的全国选举,由代表马来人的巫统、代表华人的马华公会及代表印度人的印度国大党所组成的联盟(现在称为国阵),横扫了52议席中的51席。1957年8月31日,联盟主席东姑阿都拉曼宣布马来亚独立。马来文成为国语,回教成为国教。东姑阿都拉曼出任第一届的首相,并被称为国父。1963年,马来亚联同新加坡、沙巴及砂劳越组成了马来西亚联邦。但1965年,於东姑阿都拉曼及李光耀的政治分裂,新加坡宣布退出马来西亚。
 

1969年的全国大选成绩,显示人民对联盟的支持急剧下降,反对党所获得的席位剧增。虽然联盟仍然控制联邦政府,但失去了吉兰丹州政权,并在多个州议会里面对强大的反对党势力。1969年5月13日,反对党的胜利游行在不同种族的相互嘲讽及挑衅的过程中,演变成种族冲突及流血事件,造成百多人丧失生命,无数财产被摧毁。此历史事件被成为513事件。


1970年,马来西亚宣布实施为期廿年的新经济政策,其目的是要消除贫穷,重组社会,以拉近贫富的鸿沟。但这项政策所实行的固打制,也使到非马来人社会非常不满。1972年,第二任首相敦拉萨改变了外交政策,开始和共产国家接触,并致力使东南亚成为和平、自由及中立的区域。1974年,敦拉萨访问中国,两国的邦交自此一直密切发展至今。
 

1970 年代,马来西亚开始其工业化计划。新经济政策廿年的成果,已经使到马来人的经济地位大大提升。1991年,第四任相马哈迪医生宣布推行为期三十年的2020宏愿计划,致力使马来西亚在2020年成为先进国。直到目前为止,马来西亚仍然以每年超过8%的成长率发展,成为其中一个世界上成长得最快的国家。

马来西亚的历史档案


The region now known as Malaysia was first mentioned in Chinese and Sanskrit records of the seventh and eighth centuries. In subsequent centuries the area was under the influence and loose control of various Thai and Indonesian empires, including the great Sumatra-based civilization of Sri Vijaya. This was followed in the 14th century by the Majapahit empire based in Java. Sri Vijaya and Majapahit, Bhuddist and Hindu respectively, both left a mark on the peninsula. But even by the 14th century, Islam – already well established in parts of India – was steadily spreading eastwards through the substantial trade between India and Malaya. The first Muslim empire in Malaya, based on the trading port of Malacca on the western side of the peninsula, was formed under the rule of King Parameswara in the first quarter of the 15th century. Early in the 16th century, the Portuguese moved in and, after capturing Malacca, established a number of fortified bases in the region. Sultan Mahmud, the ruler of Malacca at the time, was unable to recapture it immediately. However, his successors - who had moved to Johore on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula - noted the arrival of the Dutch in the region at the end of the century and formed an alliance with them to expel the Portuguese in 1641.

Over the next century and a half, the Dutch steadily expanded throughout the region until the Dutch East Indies became the heart of a most prosperous colonial trading operation. Coming at the end of the 18th century, the British were relatively late arrivals to the region, but they were to play a key role following the European wars of the 1790s and, in particular, the defeat of The Netherlands by France in 1795. Rather than hand them over to the French, the Dutch passed control of some of their most valuable resources to the British in what became a series of exchanges. Gradually, during the 19th century, the British took control of the peninsula using economic pressure (particularly their monopoly of the tin trade) rather than outright military force: local rulers were permitted substantial internal autonomy provided that they posed no threat to British interests. The Federated Malay States were created as an entity in 1895, and remained under British colonial control until the Japanese invasion of 1942. After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the 11 states were once again incorporated as British Protectorates and, in 1948, became the Federation of Malaya.

In the same year, communist guerrillas – the bulk of whom were ethnic Chinese – launched an armed struggle aimed at establishing an independent socialist state. ‘The Emergency’, as the colonial authorities dubbed it, lasted formally until 1960. However, the serious fighting was over by the mid-1950s and, in 1957, Britain proceeded with its plan to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya.

In 1963, the Federation of Malaya merged with Singapore and the former British colonies of Sarawak and Sabah (North Borneo) to form Malaysia. Singapore seceded to become an independent state in its own right in 1965, leaving Malaysia in its present form. Tunku Abdul Rahman, who had taken over as premier of the federation in 1957, remained as Prime Minister of the newly expanded republic. He remained in office until 1970, when he was replaced by Tunku Abdul Razak. The dominant political organization was the United Malay National Organization (UMNO), which allied itself with several smaller formations to create the Barisan Nasional (NF, National Front). In 1982, the NF won the general election scheduled for that year under the new leadership of Mahathir Mohammed.

Mahathir’s style was characterized by maverick policy-making, an acerbic tongue, strident nationalism, acute political antennae and a ferocious intolerance of opposition from any quarter. In his two decades in power, he stamped his authority on Malaysian politics. His ruthlessness was exemplified after falling out with his former deputy and heir apparent, Anwar Ibrahim, over Malaysia’s handling in the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Anwar was framed for alleged homosexuality (which is illegal in Malaysia) and corruption; after a show trial he was then imprisoned for fifteen years.

At first, Anwar and his wife became a focus of opposition to Mahathir. Although the NF had comfortably won every poll in the 1980s and ’90s, many people, including influential figures within UMNO, believed that Mahathir had finally overreached himself. The acid test came at the general election of November 1999. In the event, Mahathir ran a well-judged campaign which returned the NF to office with, once again, a substantial majority. Both the democratic opposition, organized around residual supporters of Anwar, and the Islamist opposition centered on the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) were comfortably dealt with. In particular, Mahathir made effective use of the ‘9/11’ attacks in the US to demonise his Islamist opponents.

With his political position now all but unassailable, Mahathir’s announcement in June 2002 of his intention to resign the following year was a huge surprise. The shock was followed by skepticism, and then by a further surprise in October 2003 when Mahathir did indeed stand down. The main political task for his chosen successor, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi – formerly a senior civil servant – is to prevent any further progress by the Islamist PAS. The General Election on 21 March 2004 resulted in a landslide win by the Barisan Nasional.

Mahathir’s truculence applied equally to his foreign policy. On occasion he has cut off relations with both Britain and Australia because of uncomplimentary media coverage. Though strongly anti-communist, he established diplomatic relations with Vietnam and Malaysia’s other communist neighbors in 1989 in the face of strong objections from Washington. A strong proponent of Asian regional solidarity, he firmly believed that East Asia should develop political clout to match its economic power. Malaysia is also an active member of the Commonwealth.

On December 26 2004, an earthquake in southeast Asia triggered a huge tsunami that caused widespread devastation. Despite Malaysia's close proximity to the epicenter of the earthquake, much of the coastline was spared devastation since the effects of the tsunami were blunted by Sumatra. However, near the northern island of Penang, many people were swept out to sea by the tsunami and 68 people have been confirmed dead.

Government
Malaysia has a complex federal political system, with extensive local power still in the hands of nine hereditary sultans, who elect the head of state (entitled HM the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) every five years from among their number. There are 13 states plus two ‘Federal Territories’ (Kuala Lumpur and the island of Labuan). Legislative power is in the hands of the bicameral parliament, comprising the Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) with 192 members directly elected for a five-year term, and the 70-strong Dewan Negara (Senate), of which 40 members are appointed by the Head of State and 30 members elected by the country’s 13 regional assemblies. Executive power is held by the Prime Minister, who is formally appointed by the head of state but in practice by the leader of the largest party in the Dewan Rakpat. The Prime Minister governs with the assistance of an appointed ministerial cabinet.

Economy
A fully-fledged ‘tiger’ economy, from the 1970s onwards Malaysia’s GDP grew rapidly at around 10% annually. However, in 1997 the Asian financial crisis brought this process to a shuddering halt. Malaysia has recovered reasonably well since then, although the headlong pre-1997 expansion has been replaced by a more measured pace of growth of around 4 to 5.5% each year, reaching 5.3% in 2005. Inflation was around 3% in 2005.

Healthy foreign exchange reserves, low inflation and a small external debt are all strengths that make it unlikely that a financial crisis similar to 1997 will re-occur. The Ringgit/US Dollar peg was abolished in July 2005. This has not resulted in any significant change to the exchange rate.

Malaysia is a member of the Pacific Rim organization APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Forum), which is assuming an increasingly important role in the regional economy.


The region now known as Malaysia was first mentioned in Chinese and Sanskrit records of the seventh and eighth centuries. In subsequent centuries the area was under the influence and loose control of various Thai and Indonesian empires, including the great Sumatra-based civilization of Sri Vijaya. This was followed in the 14th century by the Majapahit empire based in Java. Sri Vijaya and Majapahit, Bhuddist and Hindu respectively, both left a mark on the peninsula. But even by the 14th century, Islam – already well established in parts of India – was steadily spreading eastwards through the substantial trade between India and Malaya. The first Muslim empire in Malaya, based on the trading port of Malacca on the western side of the peninsula, was formed under the rule of King Parameswara in the first quarter of the 15th century. Early in the 16th century, the Portuguese moved in and, after capturing Malacca, established a number of fortified bases in the region. Sultan Mahmud, the ruler of Malacca at the time, was unable to recapture it immediately. However, his successors - who had moved to Johore on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula - noted the arrival of the Dutch in the region at the end of the century and formed an alliance with them to expel the Portuguese in 1641.

Over the next century and a half, the Dutch steadily expanded throughout the region until the Dutch East Indies became the heart of a most prosperous colonial trading operation. Coming at the end of the 18th century, the British were relatively late arrivals to the region, but they were to play a key role following the European wars of the 1790s and, in particular, the defeat of The Netherlands by France in 1795. Rather than hand them over to the French, the Dutch passed control of some of their most valuable resources to the British in what became a series of exchanges. Gradually, during the 19th century, the British took control of the peninsula using economic pressure (particularly their monopoly of the tin trade) rather than outright military force: local rulers were permitted substantial internal autonomy provided that they posed no threat to British interests. The Federated Malay States were created as an entity in 1895, and remained under British colonial control until the Japanese invasion of 1942. After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the 11 states were once again incorporated as British Protectorates and, in 1948, became the Federation of Malaya.

In the same year, communist guerrillas – the bulk of whom were ethnic Chinese – launched an armed struggle aimed at establishing an independent socialist state. ‘The Emergency’, as the colonial authorities dubbed it, lasted formally until 1960. However, the serious fighting was over by the mid-1950s and, in 1957, Britain proceeded with its plan to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya.

In 1963, the Federation of Malaya merged with Singapore and the former British colonies of Sarawak and Sabah (North Borneo) to form Malaysia. Singapore seceded to become an independent state in its own right in 1965, leaving Malaysia in its present form. Tunku Abdul Rahman, who had taken over as premier of the federation in 1957, remained as Prime Minister of the newly expanded republic. He remained in office until 1970, when he was replaced by Tunku Abdul Razak. The dominant political organization was the United Malay National Organization (UMNO), which allied itself with several smaller formations to create the Barisan Nasional (NF, National Front). In 1982, the NF won the general election scheduled for that year under the new leadership of Mahathir Mohammed.

Mahathir’s style was characterized by maverick policy-making, an acerbic tongue, strident nationalism, acute political antennae and a ferocious intolerance of opposition from any quarter. In his two decades in power, he stamped his authority on Malaysian politics. His ruthlessness was exemplified after falling out with his former deputy and heir apparent, Anwar Ibrahim, over Malaysia’s handling in the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Anwar was framed for alleged homosexuality (which is illegal in Malaysia) and corruption; after a show trial he was then imprisoned for fifteen years.

At first, Anwar and his wife became a focus of opposition to Mahathir. Although the NF had comfortably won every poll in the 1980s and ’90s, many people, including influential figures within UMNO, believed that Mahathir had finally overreached himself. The acid test came at the general election of November 1999. In the event, Mahathir ran a well-judged campaign which returned the NF to office with, once again, a substantial majority. Both the democratic opposition, organized around residual supporters of Anwar, and the Islamist opposition centered on the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS) were comfortably dealt with. In particular, Mahathir made effective use of the ‘9/11’ attacks in the US to demonise his Islamist opponents.

With his political position now all but unassailable, Mahathir’s announcement in June 2002 of his intention to resign the following year was a huge surprise. The shock was followed by skepticism, and then by a further surprise in October 2003 when Mahathir did indeed stand down. The main political task for his chosen successor, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi – formerly a senior civil servant – is to prevent any further progress by the Islamist PAS. The General Election on 21 March 2004 resulted in a landslide win by the Barisan Nasional.

Mahathir’s truculence applied equally to his foreign policy. On occasion he has cut off relations with both Britain and Australia because of uncomplimentary media coverage. Though strongly anti-communist, he established diplomatic relations with Vietnam and Malaysia’s other communist neighbors in 1989 in the face of strong objections from Washington. A strong proponent of Asian regional solidarity, he firmly believed that East Asia should develop political clout to match its economic power. Malaysia is also an active member of the Commonwealth.

On December 26 2004, an earthquake in southeast Asia triggered a huge tsunami that caused widespread devastation. Despite Malaysia's close proximity to the epicenter of the earthquake, much of the coastline was spared devastation since the effects of the tsunami were blunted by Sumatra. However, near the northern island of Penang, many people were swept out to sea by the tsunami and 68 people have been confirmed dead.

Government
Malaysia has a complex federal political system, with extensive local power still in the hands of nine hereditary sultans, who elect the head of state (entitled HM the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) every five years from among their number. There are 13 states plus two ‘Federal Territories’ (Kuala Lumpur and the island of Labuan). Legislative power is in the hands of the bicameral parliament, comprising the Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives) with 192 members directly elected for a five-year term, and the 70-strong Dewan Negara (Senate), of which 40 members are appointed by the Head of State and 30 members elected by the country’s 13 regional assemblies. Executive power is held by the Prime Minister, who is formally appointed by the head of state but in practice by the leader of the largest party in the Dewan Rakpat. The Prime Minister governs with the assistance of an appointed ministerial cabinet.

Economy
A fully-fledged ‘tiger’ economy, from the 1970s onwards Malaysia’s GDP grew rapidly at around 10% annually. However, in 1997 the Asian financial crisis brought this process to a shuddering halt. Malaysia has recovered reasonably well since then, although the headlong pre-1997 expansion has been replaced by a more measured pace of growth of around 4 to 5.5% each year, reaching 5.3% in 2005. Inflation was around 3% in 2005.

Healthy foreign exchange reserves, low inflation and a small external debt are all strengths that make it unlikely that a financial crisis similar to 1997 will re-occur. The Ringgit/US Dollar peg was abolished in July 2005. This has not resulted in any significant change to the exchange rate.

Malaysia is a member of the Pacific Rim organization APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Forum), which is assuming an increasingly important role in the regional economy.

Malaysia History

Sunday, March 8, 2009

中国古代王朝和近代史

认识中国的历史




春秋战国

主条目:周朝东周春秋时期战国
先师孔子行教像,为唐朝画家吴道子所画

前770年,由于遭到北方游牧部落犬戎的侵袭,周平王东迁黄河中游的洛邑(今河南洛阳),东周开始。此后,周王朝的影响力逐渐减弱,取而代之的是大大小小一百多个小国(诸侯国和附属国),史称春秋时期。春秋时期的大国共有十几个,其中包括了等。这一时期社会动荡,战争不断,先后有五个国家称霸,即齐、宋、晋、楚、秦(又有一说是齐、晋、楚、吴、越),合称春秋五霸。到了前546年左右,黄河流域的争霸基本结束,晋、楚两国平分了霸权。前403年,晋国被分成三个诸侯国,史称“三家分晋”。再加上被田氏夺去了政权的齐国,和秦、楚及,并称战国七雄战国时期正式开始。大部分马克思主义史学家将战国开始划为封建社会,然而大部分西方及台湾学者却又将之划为封建社会的崩溃。前356年秦国商鞅变法开始后,秦国国力大大增强,最后终于在前221年消灭六国最后的齐国,完成统一,中国历史也进入了新时代。

春秋战国时期学术思想比较自由,史称百家争鸣。出现了多位对之后中国有深远影响的思想家诸子百家),例如老子孔子墨子庄子孟子荀子韩非等人。出现了很多学术流派,较出名的有十大家,即道家(自然)、儒家(伦理)、阴阳家(星象占卜)、法家(法治)、名家(修辞辩论)、墨家(兼爱非攻)、杂家(合各家所长)、农家(君民同耕)、小说家(道听途说)等。文化上则出现了第一个以个人名字出现在中国文学史上的诗人屈原,他著有楚辞离骚等文学作品。孔子编成了诗经战争史上出现了杰出的兵法家孙武孙膑吴起等等。科技史上出现了墨子,建筑史上有鲁班,首次发明了瓦当,奠定了中国建筑技术的基础。能制造精良的战车与骑兵,同时此时中国的冶金也十分发达,能制造精良的铁器,在农业上出现了各种灌溉机械,大大提高了生产率,从而为以后人口大大膨胀奠定了基础。历史上出现了春秋(左传),国语战国策中华文化的源头基本上都可以在这一时期找到。

这一时期科技方面也取得了很大进步。夏朝发明了干支纪年,出现了十进位制。西周人用圭表测日影来确定季节;春秋时期确定了二十八宿;后期则产生了古四分历


秦汉时期

主条目:秦朝汉朝西汉新朝东汉
北京八达岭长城

前221年,秦并其他六国后统一了中国主体部分,成为了中国历史上第一个统一的中央集权君主统治国家,定都咸阳(今西安附近)。由于秦王嬴政自认“功盖三皇,德过五帝”,于是改用皇帝称号,自封始皇帝,人称秦始皇,传位后的皇帝称二世,直至千世万世。他对国家进行了许多项改革,包括了中央集权的确立,取代了周朝的诸侯分封制;统一了文字,方便官方行文;统一度量衡,便于工程上的计算。秦始皇还大力修筑驰道,并连接了战国时赵国、燕国和秦国的北面围城,筑成了西起临洮、东至辽东万里长城以抵御北方来自匈奴东胡等游牧民族的侵袭。秦始皇推崇法治,重用法家的李斯作为丞相,并听其意见,下令焚书坑儒,收缴天下兵器,役使七十万人修筑阿房宫以及自己的陵墓——包括兵马俑等。[来源请求]

前210年,秦始皇病死于出巡途中,胡亥(即秦二世)杀害太子扶苏即位。但十个月后,陈胜吴广在大泽乡揭竿而起,包括六国遗臣等野心家乘势作乱,前206年刘邦围攻咸阳,秦王子婴自缚出城投降,秦亡。此后,汉王刘邦西楚霸王项羽展开了争夺天下的楚汉战争前202年十二月,项羽被汉军围困于垓下(今安徽灵壁),四面楚歌。项羽在乌江自刎而死。楚汉之争至此结束。汉高祖刘邦登基,定都长安(今陕西西安),西汉开始。到了汉武帝时,西汉到达鼎盛。并与罗马安息帕提亚),贵霜并称为四大帝国。武帝实行推恩令,彻底削弱了封国势力,强化监察制度,实现中央集权;他派遣卫青霍去病李广等大将北伐,成功地击溃了匈奴,控制了西域,还派遣张骞出使西域,开拓了著名的丝绸之路,发展了对外贸易,使中国真正了解了外面的世界,促进中西文化交流。儒家学说也被确立为官方的主流意识形态,成为了占统治地位的思想。其他艺术与文化也蒸蒸日上。同时期还出现了第一部通史性质的巨著——《史记》,同时这时的中国出现造纸术,大大推动了文化发展。

西汉发展到了一世纪左右开始逐渐衰败。9年外戚王莽夺权,宣布进行一系列的改革,改国号为。然而这些改革却往往不切实际,最终导致农民纷纷起义。25年刘秀复辟了汉朝,定都洛阳,史称东汉,而他就是汉光武帝。东汉的发展延续了西汉的传统,此时出现了天文学家张衡。汉的文化吸取了秦的教训,显得相当开明,当时佛教通过西域到达中国,在河南洛阳修建了中国的第一座佛教寺庙——白马寺,佛教正式传入中国。

魏晋南北朝时期

赤壁

东汉中后期,宦官外戚长期争权,在黄巾起义的打击下,到了公元二世纪左右时再度衰败,196年曹操控制了东汉朝廷,把汉献帝迎至许都,“挟天子以令诸侯”,220年,曹操逝世,长子曹丕汉献帝自立,建立魏国,定都洛阳,同时尚有刘氏的蜀汉定都成都和孙氏的定都建业(今南京),历史进入了三国时期。

263年,魏权臣司马昭派兵灭蜀汉。266年,司马昭之子司马炎称帝,建立晋朝,定都洛阳。280年三国归晋,再度统一。290年晋武帝死后不到一年,十六年的朝廷权利斗争开始,史称“八王之乱”。与此同时,中原周边的五个游牧民族(匈奴鲜卑)与各地流民起来反晋,史称五胡乱华。这些游牧民族纷纷建立自己的国家,从304年409年,北部中国陆陆续续有多个国家建立,包括了前赵后赵前燕前凉前秦后秦后燕西秦后凉北凉南凉南燕西凉北燕,史称十六国

自东汉后期开始,为躲避战乱,北方的汉族人民大量迁居南方,造成经济重心开始南移;晋朝南迁,建都建康(今江苏南京),历史上称此前为西晋,南迁后为东晋。最后,拓跋鲜卑统一北方,建立北朝的第一个王朝——北魏,形成了南北朝的对立。南朝经历了的更替,而北朝则有北魏东魏西魏北齐北周。南北朝时期是佛教十分盛行的时期,西方的佛教大师络绎不绝地来到中国,许多佛经被翻译成汉文。

隋唐五代时期

主条目:隋朝唐朝五代十国
唐代画家张萱作《捣练图》。

581年杨坚取代北周建立了隋朝,定都长安(今陕西省西安市附近)并于589年灭掉南朝最后一个政权——陈,中国历经了三百多年的分裂之后再度实现了统一。不过隋朝也是一个短命的王朝,在修筑了巨大工程——京杭大运河后就灭亡了,只经历了两代37年。

618年,唐高祖李渊推翻隋朝建立了唐朝,它是中国历史上延续时间最长的朝代之一。626年唐太宗李世民即位,唐朝开始进入鼎盛时期,史称贞观之治长安(今陕西西安市)是当时世界上最大的城市,唐朝文明也是当时最发达的文明。高宗李治之妻武则天迁都洛阳,并称帝,成为中国史上唯一承认的女皇帝,改国号周,并定佛教为国教,广修佛寺,大兴土木。隋唐时期开创的科举制是当时比较科学与公平的人材选拔制度。唐王朝与许多邻国发展了良好的关系,文成公主嫁到吐蕃,带去了大批丝织品和手工艺品。日本则不断派遣使节、学问僧和留学生到中国。唐朝的文化也处于鼎盛,特别是诗文得到较大的发展,还编撰了许多纪传体史书。唐代涌现出许多伟大的文学家,例如诗人李白杜甫白居易杜牧,以及散文家韩愈柳宗元。唐代的佛教是最兴盛的宗教,玄奘曾赴天竺取经,回国后译成1335卷的经文,并于西安修建了大雁塔以存放佛经。唐朝前期对宗教采取宽容政策,佛教外,道教摩尼教(Manicheism)、景教伊斯兰教等也得到了广泛传播。这一切都在李世民的曾孙唐玄宗李隆基统治时期达到顶峰,史称开元盛世。然而在755年,爆发了安史之乱唐朝由此开始走向衰落。

875年黄巢起义爆发。起义最终被镇压,但唐朝中央政府也彻底失去了地方军阀的控制。907年军阀朱温篡唐,建立后梁。地方藩镇势力也纷纷自行割据,形成了五代十国的混乱局面。

宋元时期


主条目:辽朝金朝西夏宋朝元朝
清明上河图局部,描绘了清明时节,北宋京城汴梁及汴河两岸的繁华和热闹的景象和优美的自然风光。

经过了五十多年的纷争后,960年北宋建立后控制了中国大部分地区,但是燕云十六州在北方契丹族建立的辽朝手中(五代中的后晋太祖“儿皇帝石敬瑭所献),河西走廊党项族建立的西夏趁中原内乱占据。北宋虽然曾出兵讨伐辽和西夏,但是均以失败告终,木以成舟,无可奈何,不得不向日益坐大的西夏交纳岁币。北宋晚期发生了分别以王安石司马光为首的新旧党争,增加了社会的不安。到了1125年松花江流域女真族,也就是后来的满族,建立的金国势力逐渐强大,1125年,金国灭辽。金国随即开始进攻积弱的北宋,1127年(靖康元年)金国攻破北宋首都汴京(今河南开封),俘虏三千多皇族,其中包括了当时的皇帝宋钦宗和太上皇宋徽宗,因为钦宗其时的年号为靖康,史称靖康之难,北宋灭亡。同年宋钦宗的弟弟赵构在南京应天府(今河南商丘)即皇位,定都临安(今浙江杭州),史称南宋,偏安江南。

此后金与南宋多次交战,但两方都未有大的突破。直到1234年蒙古南宋联合灭金。随即蒙古南宋对抗,经历了空前绝后的大规模血腥战争(如襄樊之战钓鱼城之战)。1271年忽必烈建立元朝,定都大都(今北京)。元军于1279年南宋进行了崖山海战,8岁的小皇帝赵昺陆秀夫背着以身殉国惨烈地跳海而死。崖山海战以元朝的胜利告终,南宋随之灭亡。

北宋时期中国出现印刷术火药。当时中国经济发达,中国海上贸易十分兴盛,福建泉州一带成为繁华的港口,中国当时的经济总量占世界的一半,财政收入超过一亿两白银,首都开封和杭州人口达到100万和120万人口,相对当时佛罗伦萨巴黎十几万人口来讲确实是十分繁华,各国商人云集,文化也极盛,出现了程颐朱熹理学家,提倡三从四德。与唐诗并驾齐驱的宋词,有苏轼等词文优秀的词人,出现了中国历史上最著名的女词人李清照,社会文化发达,出现了白蛇传梁祝等浪漫爱情传说。

元朝建立后,一方面吸收了许多中原、汉族文化,以中原的统治机构和方式来统治人民,并大力宣扬朱熹一派的理论(即程朱理学),使得程朱理学成为元朝(以及其后朝代)的官方思想,另一方面却实行了民族等级制度,第一等是蒙古人;第二等是“色目人”,包括原西夏统治区以及来自西域、中亚等地的人口;第三等是“汉人”,包括原金统治区的汉族和契丹、女真等族人;第四等是“南人”,包括原南宋统治区的汉族和其他族人。这种民族制度导致汉族的不满,许多汉族人将元朝视为外来政权,并发动多次反抗。元朝政府除了传统的农业外,也比较重视商业。元朝首都大都十分繁华,来自世界各国的商人云集。在文化上,则出现了与唐诗宋词并称的元曲,涌现出诸如关汉卿马致远王实甫等著名作曲家。

明清时期

紫禁城太和殿

1368年,农民起义军领袖朱元璋推翻元朝并建立了明朝。明朝前期建都南京,同时以开封为北京。明成祖发动靖难之役夺位后,于1421年迁都北京,明朝进入全盛时期。1405年曾帮助明成祖篡位的太监郑和奉命七次下西洋,曾经到达印度洋东南亚非洲等地,但后来明朝实行海禁,未能将成果保持下去。明朝文化上则出现了王阳明李贽等思想家,以及《三国演义》、《水浒传》、《西游记》和《金瓶梅》等长篇小说。1449年明英宗于北伐瓦剌时战败被俘,50万明军全军覆没,史称土木堡之变。明朝自此开始走向下坡路。此后,明朝的内部统治日渐腐败,宦官专权日益严重。张居正一度试图通过变法改变局面,但在他死后改革便告终结。明神宗明熹宗皆为昏君,朝廷内部统治每况愈下,外部情况则是后金崛起于东北,成为明朝的重大威胁。明思宗铲除阉党,力图振作,但由于明朝末年行政混乱及严重自然灾害,1627年明末农民大起义爆发。1644年,起义首领李自成攻克北京,明思宗自缢,清军入关。南方大臣先后拥护福王朱由崧(弘光)、唐王朱聿键(隆武)、桂王朱由榔(永历)为帝,史称南明,最终因实力不足及政治内斗为清朝所灭。

明朝晚期,居住在东北地区的满族开始兴盛起来,终于在1644年李自成攻克北京后不久,驱逐李自成,进入北京,建立了清朝,当时明朝旧臣郑成功南撤到台湾岛,并驱逐了那里的荷兰殖民者,后来被清朝军队攻下。清朝在之后的半个世纪还攻打并占领许多地区,例如新疆西藏蒙古以及台湾康熙年间,清廷还与沙俄在黑龙江地区发生战争,最终于1689年签订停战条约——《中俄尼布楚条约》。清朝由于取消了丁税(人头税),导致人口增加,到19世纪已达当时世界总人口的三分之一,人口的增多促进当时农业的兴盛,为当时世界上第一强国,到1820年时中国的经济总量占世界的三分之一。

然而到了19世纪初,清朝已经走向衰落,在嘉庆年间先后爆发白莲教天理教的大规模起义。与此同时海上强国英国荷兰葡萄牙等纷纷开始强制与中国进行贸易。1787年,英国商人开始向华输入鸦片,导致中国的国际贸易由顺差变为巨额逆差。清廷于1815年颁布搜查洋船鸦片章程,然而英商无视禁令依然走私大量鸦片,道光皇帝不得不于1838年林则徐广州禁烟。1839年6月,将237万多斤鸦片在虎门销毁,史称虎门销烟。英国政府因此于1840年6月发动鸦片战争。一般中国大陆史学界认为这是中国近代史的开始。

清末的内忧外患

一幅描绘列强瓜分中国情形的漫画

鸦片战争持续了约两年,1842年8月英军到达南京,清廷恐惧英军会进逼北京,于是求和,1842年8月29日,《南京条约》签署。香港岛被割让;上海广州厦门福州宁波开放作为通商口岸,还赔偿款银(西班牙银圆)2100万元。1844年美国法国也与清廷分别签订了《望厦条约》和《黄埔条约》,中国的主权受到破坏。

与此同时中国国内反抗清朝的斗争再度兴起。1851年1864年间,受到基督教影响的秀才洪秀全建立拜上帝会,发动金田起义并创建了太平天国。太平天国曾经一度占领南方部分省份,并定都南京(改名“天京”),建立政教合一的中央政权。同一时期其它的运动还有天地会捻军上海小刀会起义甘肃回民起义等。这些反抗清朝的斗争直到1860年代中期才基本平息下来。

19世纪后期,英、美、法、俄、日等国多次侵入中国,强迫中国与之签定不平等条约1858年中俄签定《瑷珲条约》,俄国割去黑龙江以北、外兴安岭以南60多万平方公里的中国领土。1860年,英法联军发动第二次鸦片战争,侵入北京,掠夺并烧毁皇家园林圆明园,并于1860年与清廷签定《北京条约》,各赔英法800万两白银,开放更多通商口岸。同年中俄《北京条约》将乌苏里江以东,包括库页岛(萨哈林岛)、海参崴(符拉迪沃斯托克)约40万平方公里的中国领土,划归俄国。1864年,《中俄勘分西北界约记》将巴尔喀什湖以东、以南和斋桑卓尔南北44万平方公里的中国领土,割给俄国。

为了增强国力并巩固国防,清朝自1860年代开始推行洋务运动,国力有所恢复,并一度出现了同治中兴的局面。1877年清军收复新疆1881年通过《伊犁条约》清军收复被沙俄占据多年的伊犁中法战争后清朝还建立了当时号称亚洲第一、世界第六的近代海军舰队—北洋水师。然而在1894年爆发的中日甲午战争中,中国战败,次年被迫与日本签定《马关条约》,赔偿日本2亿两白银,并割让台湾澎湖列岛给日本。甲午战争的失败,对当时的中国产生了很大的影响。1898年光绪帝在亲政后同意康有为梁启超等人提出的变法主张,从6月11日9月21日的被称为百日维新的103天中进行了多项改革,但最终在慈禧太后发动政变后失败落幕,康有为、梁启超逃亡国外,谭嗣同刘光第等六人被杀,史称“戊戌六君子”。

1899年义和团运动爆发,以“扶清灭洋”为宗旨并在慈禧太后默许下开始围攻外国驻北京使馆。于是,各国以解救驻京使馆人员的名义侵入中国,史称八国联军1901年,清政府被迫与各国签定辛丑条约,赔款4.5亿两白银,分39年还清(本息合计9.8亿两),同时从北京到山海关铁路沿线由各国派兵驻扎,开北京东交民巷为使馆区,国人不得入内等。


20世纪至今

[编辑] 中华民国的建立与变迁

1901年,革命党开始兴起,孙文等人在海外积极筹款,指挥国内的多次革命运动。经过十次失败的起事后,与革命党互不沟通的湖北新军武昌起事获得成功。1912年1月,亚洲第一个民主共和国中华民国宣告成立。孙文就任临时大总统。以清帝退位为条件,孙文辞去总统位置,由袁世凯接任。2月12日,隆裕皇后发表退位宣言,清朝正式走入历史。袁世凯任大总统后妄图恢复帝制。此後,孙文发起护法运动护国运动讨伐袁世凯。1916年,袁世凯在称帝83天之后死去,中华民国进入北洋军阀控制中央政府时期,地方政府则由各个军阀派系占据。

孙文之后多次试图联合南方军阀北伐北京中央政府未果。1920年,在共产国际的指导下中国共产党成立,并成为共产国际中国支部。1924年,孙文在中国国民党第一次全国代表大会上确立了联俄容共的政策,中国国民党在共产国际帮助下改组,共产党员以个人身份加入中国国民党,国共两党进行所谓的“第一次合作”。孙文自建立广州军政府1923年改称大元帅府)以后,曾经三次进行北伐,均因条件不具备而未果。1925年春,孙文病逝于北京。同年,广州国民政府为统一与巩固广东革命根据地,先后举行第一次东征第二次东征与南征,肃清广东境内的军阀势力和反革命武装,并将广东境内倾向革命的军队统一改编为国民革命军,下辖第1至第6军。不久又将广西部队改编为第7军。为北伐战争作了重要准备。1926年6月5日,中国国民党中央执行委员会正式通过国民革命军出师北伐案,并任命蒋中正为国民革命军总司令正式开始北伐。然而随着北伐和国民革命的深入,中国国民党不能容忍中国共产党激进的工人运动,1927年4月和7月,国民党内蒋中正和汪精卫,在上海和武汉发动清党,清除共产党人。国共两党分裂,大量共产党员及其支持者被清出国民党,有的被拘捕和杀害。1927年8月1日,以周恩来贺龙(此时尚未入党)、叶挺朱德刘伯承为首的共产党员在江西南昌发动南昌暴动,中国共产党从此有了自己独立的军队(中华人民共和国成立后,8月1日被定为建军节)。并于江西瑞金建立了卖国的苏维埃地方政权。此後南京国民政府先后对中央苏区进行五次围剿,共军抵御了前四次围剿,在第五次战争因军事指挥层军事思想不符合现实而失败,被迫离开苏区。1934年开始,红军进行战略转移(史称二万五千里长征),在贵州遵义确立了毛泽东对红军的领导和指挥权,四渡赤水河,终于摆脱了追击,途经江西,贵州,四川,甘肃,陕西,经过所谓的二万五千里长征,最后在陕西北部与陕北红军刘志丹部会师,建立陕甘宁共产党临时政府。

毛泽东在天安门城楼上宣布中华人民共和国的成立

1931年9月18日,日本出兵占领了东北全境。1936年12月12日西安事变后国共所谓的“第二次合作”抗日。1937年7月7日中日战争全面爆发,蒋中正委员长在庐山发表著名的“最后关头”的演说,号召全国人民一致抗日。在日军进行南京大屠杀前夕,国民政府首都从南京迁至武汉,后来迁至重庆,在八年间蒋中正为统帅的国、共抗日力量共进行了22次大会战,和成千上万次大小战斗。1945年第二次世界大战结束后,当时的中国国民政府从日本手里获得了台湾及澎湖列岛以及其他一些领土,但也在1946年与苏联签订的条约中承认了外蒙古的独立(1951年,迁往台湾省的中国国民党国民政府以苏联未履约为由,不承认该条约及依据该条约而独立的外蒙古的独立地位;但是,蒙古独立已为既成事实)。在抗日卫国战争中,中华民国国民革命军兵力最高时达500万人。中华民国国民政府领导下的国民革命军与日军共有22次大型会战、1117次大型战斗、小型战斗28931次。国民革命军陆军死亡、失踪321万1914人,空军阵亡4321人、损失战机2468架,海军几乎全灭。中华民国国民政府通过开罗宣言废除了百年不平等条约,光复了东北、台湾及其附属岛屿!在抗战胜利后,中华民国挤身世界五强,成为联合国创始会员国,安全理事会常任理事国,由国民政府主席蒋中正先生签署联合国宪章。并由民国35(1946)年召开制宪国民大会,制定中华民国宪法,民国36(1947)年实行民主宪政。民国37(1948)年进行立法委员、总统之民主选举,蒋中正先生成为中华民国实行民主宪政后的第一任总统!至此中华民国成为世界上最大的民主共和制国家!正在中华民国战后建设之时,叙谋已久的中共军队开始大规模叛乱!中共军队在抗战前只有3万兵力,却趁著国难发展壮大,抗战结束时,中共发展到正规军120万,民兵约260万到300万!1946年6月,国共内战开始。中国共产党最终于1949年获得决定性胜利,中华民国中央政府迁往台湾台北。中华人民共和国在北平成立,并将北平改名为北京,毛泽东宣布中华人民共和国政府为包括台湾在内的全中国的唯一合法政府。与此同时,中华民国总统蒋中正宣布台北为国民政府临时首都,宣誓三年内反攻大陆。

[编辑] 中华人民共和国

中共执政之初,采用“土地革命”“公私合营”等方法,国内纷乱的局势暂时得到了稳定。按照中共的史观,自1956年“三大改造”完成后,中国正式进入社会主义阶段。并制订第一个五年计划,大力发展重工业,国家经济一度好转。但是1958年,毛泽东发动“大跃进”运动与“人民公社化”运动,客观上脱离实际并造成了各地浮夸风“放卫星”等谎报数据的情况盛行。自1959年到1961年,国家经济又陷入濒临崩溃的境地,中共称其为“三年自然灾害”。毛泽东因此退居幕后,以刘少奇为首的一批官僚着手恢复经济,国家形式得到了回稳。1966年,文化大革命爆发,刘少奇、邓小平等人被打倒,毛泽东再度成为政治领导,林彪一度成为内定接班人。在林彪阴谋败露后,四人帮成为新的重要政治势力,其进一步引导文革进行。1976年,周恩来朱德先后去世;9月9日,毛泽东去世。华国锋接替了毛的领导地位,四人帮被打倒。尽管华停止了文革中的文斗武斗等混乱局势,但提出了“两个凡是”的路线,在国家实质上仍然没有完全脱离文化大革命阶段的困顿状态。1978年,邓小平复出,中共十一届三中全会召开,改革开放时代正式到来。到1984年,中国的经济开重新步入正轨。但是,由于通货膨胀与政治腐败,民间不满情绪开始酝酿。1989年,胡耀邦的去世成为愤怒爆发的导火索,终致爆发了六四事件江泽民也接替邓成为了新的中国领导人,为了保持国家的稳定,改革开放的步伐一度有所停滞,直到1992年邓小平南巡后才得以改变。1997年,中国收复香港地区的主权,其后澳门地区也在1999年回归。2002年后,胡锦涛成为新的国家领导人。20世纪末叶,中国政府渐渐放弃“韬光养晦”的外交方针,在外交舞台上动作频繁,并强化国际地位,并与2008年末派出护航舰队进入亚丁湾附近海域,以维护中国在该地区的海上利益。此时中国经济改革已经得到了辉煌的成就,中国人均生活水平大幅提高,外汇储备世界第一,使中国亦被誉为“世界工厂”,中国的政治改革也在循序渐进逐步进行,此时中国已经成为了世界上最有发展潜力的国家之一。在此同时,中国大陆政府也面临巨大的挑战,主要表现在:环境污染、资源匮乏、社会贫富差距不能有效控制、民主制度化发展迟滞不能适应要求、部分少数民族历史原因上的分裂、部分地方政府粗暴行政带来的民众不满、未来人口结构的老龄化。

[编辑] 中华民国

自1949国民政府迁台后,台湾的中华民国政府始终保持对政治与言论自由的强力控制。由于民国50、60年代的经济成就造就了一整代的中产阶级,导致民国70年代左右,台湾的威权社会控制体系开始松动。1986年,中华民国第一个反对党民主进步党成立。1987年7月14日,中华民国政府正式宣告台湾省解严,解除了长达39年政府对台湾社会的严密控制,从此,台湾进入了一个崭新的时代。1991年4月30日,中华民国政府宣布废止动员戡乱时期临时条款,使得台澎地区单方面解除对大陆的积极军事对峙(即正式以成文方式宣告放弃反攻大陆政策)。之后,1996年举行了第一次总统公民直选,由中国国民党籍的原总统李登辉当选连任;2000年,中华民国第二次总统民选,由在野党民主进步党所推举的陈水扁当选,此次总统选举亦实现了中华民国史上第一次的和平政权轮替。2005年,末代国民大会召开,中华民国宪法出现了重大更改。 (请参看台湾历史

[编辑] 台海两岸

由于1949年之后,北京及台北政府皆宣布自己是唯一的合法中国政府并否定对方的合法地位,因此两岸对峙长达50馀年。但是由于北京政府掌握了中国绝大部份的领土,因此自1971年中华民国的联合国席位由中华人民共和国取代后,国际官方一般都认定北京的中华人民共和国为中国之唯一合法政府;至於面对台湾的中华民国政府,在国际上通常不表示承认其主权国家地位。不过亦有少数国家保持与中华民国之正式邦交关系,或如美国等,宣布认定中华民国为“主权未定”。

台海两岸各自的政府于1980年代,在以“一个中国”的前提之下,开始有了较为开放的互动关系,并在往后数年进行了一系列政治、文化上的交流。2000年后,台湾政党轮替,由于新上任的民进党政府和绝大多数台湾民众在台海两岸的议题上,偏向一边一国、台湾不隶属中国的态度,因此为台海两岸的局势发展带来了全新的变量。2008年国民党马英九重夺中华民国政权,以一中各表九二共识和对岸加深交流,但在台湾也引起了多方质疑,认为是对中共政府的妥协。

目前,北京面对台湾主权相关议题,坚持台湾是中国领土的一部分,并以所谓“和平统一”为主轴,“一国两制”作为处理台海两岸议题的框架,希望台北归于北京的统治;台北方面,国民党领导台湾统一势力,坚持一中各表,持续推动两岸关系的缓和;民进党则积极推动台湾独立运动,反对国民党之政治主张。

台海两岸的未来发展,仍充满未知数,有待后人解决. 中国历史